THE DEFINITIVE BLOG FOR EVERYTHING YOU NEED TO KNOW ABOUT THE ENVIRONMENT YOU LIVE IN, WITH REFERENCE TO LIFE, EARTH AND COSMIC SPACE SCIENCES, PRESENTED BY ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEER DORU INDREI, ENVIRONMENTAL QUALITY AND ENERGY SPACIALIST
"Life is not about what we know, but what we don't know, craving the unthinkable makes it so amazing, that is worth dying for."Doru Indrei
Researchers at the school of physics and astronomy at Tel-Aviv University have created a track around which a semi-conductor can float, thanks to the phenomenon of "quantum levitation".
This levitation effect is explained by the Meissner effect, which describes how, when a material makes the transition from its normal to its superconducting state, it actively excludes magnetic fields from its interior, leaving only a thin layer on its surface.
When a material is in its superconducting state -- which involves very low temperatures -- it is strongly diamagnetic. This means that when a magnetic field is externally applied, it will create an equally-opposing magnetic field, locking it in place.
A material called yttrium barium copper oxide can be turned into a superconductor by exposure to liquid nitrogen -- which makes it one of the highest-temperature superconductors.
In the video it appears that a puck of yttrium barium copper oxide cooled by liquid nitrogen is repelling the magnets embedded on the handheld device. It also shows that the angle of the magnet can be locked in a magnetic field. Later in the video the puck can be seen to zoom round a circular track of magnets, in the same way that Maglev high-speed trains do.
Some say the world will end in fire; some say ice. Lately, screenwriters and apocalypse enthusiasts have preferred natural cataclysms as their world-killers. As for when the end will arrive, those folks who claim to be in the know have an affinity for stamping 2012 as the Earth's sell-by date.
Why 2012? The answer traces back to true believers' interpretations (and reinterpretations) of Nostradamus, Edgar Cayce and various other ambiguous and nonscientific sources. Some armchair eschatologists have narrowed the expiration date further, to Dec. 21, 2012 -- when, they argue, the Mayan Long Count calendar ends its 5,125-year cycle. However, experts agree that the Mayans themselves did not believe that the world would end on this date, so feel free to buy green bananas on Dec. 19, 2012
he lack of scientific evidence for the coming apocalypse hasn't deterred believers from trotting out scientific theories to serve as evidence of imminent mass destruction. One of the most remarkable ideas they've chosen to flog is the pole shifthypothesis, in which the Earth's crust and mantle (or outermost layers) move as one piece. Pole shift might send the poles sliding toward the equator, swing North America poleward or produce any arrangement that might result from turning a globe in your hands.
People have been batting around some version of the pole shift hypothesis since at least the mid-19th century and, although many of the scientific questions it attempted to answer have since been addressed by plate tectonics, it's rooted solidly in physics. Plate tectonics and pole shifts interact and are governed by the same forces, but pole shifts, in which the outer shell of the world moves as one piece, produce very different results than plate tectonics, in which pieces of the Earth's crust bump, grind and slide -- opening seas, building mountain ranges and rearranging continents.
If a large pole shift could happen suddenly, the redistribution of land and water it caused would be nothing short of cataclysmic. In the short term, it would mean earthquakes, strange weather patterns, massive tsunamis capable of drowning parts of continents, and possibly gaps in the planet's magnetic field -- our shield against harmful cosmic rays. In the long term, the redistribution of land and water in the tropics, subtropics and poles would fundamentally alter ocean currents and the heat balance of the Earth, resulting in widespread climatological shifts. Ice caps might melt and reform elsewhere, or remain melted, driving sea levels down or up.
All of which returns us to the question: Could such a catastrophic shift occur, and if so, will it happen in 2012?
Pole shift refers to a geological phenomena in which the Earth's outermost layers move together as one piece.
o understand polar shift (known to geologists as the True Polar Wander, or TPW, hypothesis), it helps to have a clear picture of how the Earth is put together.
The Earth isn't a solid ball of rock; it consists of concentric layers, each with its own heat and density characteristics. The outermost layer, the crust, is made up of rocky, interlocking pieces. These aluminum-silicate plates float like rafts atop a molten outer mantle, which surrounds a more fluid inner mantle. Farther in, a liquid nickel-iron outer core encompasses the Earth's solid, iron inner core. Put another way, the Earth consists of a solid shell surrounding a liquid interior, which encircles a solid center.
Most of the Earth's internal heat is stored in the mantle. There, temperature differentials cause convection -- the same process observed in a pot of boiling water, except it takes place over hundreds of kilometers and involves what Dr. Evil would call "liquid hot magma." Hotter magma rises toward the crust while cooler, denser materials -- such as subducted oceanic plates -- sink toward the core [source: Sager]. Convection drives tectonic processes and also redistributes the internal mass of the Earth.
Above the mantle, the crust tilts, rocks, sinks and rebounds in response to changes in pressure and load, such as occur after an ice age, when glacial ice returns to the sea as meltwater. The motion is like how a boat reacts to a person exiting or climbing aboard, only much slower.
When internal and/or surface mass distributions become uneven, TPW might occur, because the centrifugal force of the Earth's spin drives mass anomalies -- whether on the crust or in the mantle -- toward the equator. Some geologists argue that this has happened in the past. One possibility occurred about 800 million years ago; another, 610 - 510 million years ago, might have caused climate shifts that helped bring about the Cambrian explosion -- the relatively rapid appearance of most of the major groups of animals in the fossil record.
Some scientists believe that a polar shift is happening right now, at a rate of around nearly 4 inches (10 centimeters) per year [source: Tarduno]. This gradual "righting of the boat" is a physical response to the retreat of the Laurentide ice sheet at the end of the Pleistocene Epoch, 20,000-plus years ago [source: Maloof]. But don't pack the kids into John Cusack's limo just yet; this rate, although fast by plate tectonic standards, is still very, very slow. In fact, TPW takes 1 million to 100 million years to complete an adjustment -- the geological equivalent of watching fingernails grow -- and the current one will stop before making much progress.
However you look at it, rapid polar shifts, like the kind portrayed in the movie "2012," simply don't happen.
Magnetic Shift
Polar shift is easily confused with pole reversal, in which the Earth's magnetic poles change places. Evidence for such reversals is abundant, locked in the iron oxides of ancient rocks, which aligned along the direction of magnetic north when they cooled. This alignment still occurs in some igneous rocks, such as when lava cools and crystallizes. Magnetic pole reversals occur irregularly (around every 300,000 years) and require thousands of years to complete. Some call the South Atlantic Anomaly -- a trough in the Earth's magnetic field near the coast of Brazil that enables cosmic rays and charged particles to delve lower than usual into the atmosphere -- a harbinger of an upcoming pole reversal, due perhaps as soon as 2012. Scientists think it unlikely; even if it happened, they say, the results would not be catastrophic.
Every 100,000 years or so, the field flips, meaning that compasses would point south, rather than north. It's been about 780,000 years since the last reversal. Earth's magnetic field is carting away toward Russia at a rate of about 40 miles a year. The shift widens the distance between true north and magnetic north, which is the direction a compass needle points. The phenomenon is normal, though it does have implications for modern life.
Follow the direction of a compass needle and you'll end up at the North Pole, right? Not these days.
The planet's magnetic field is on the move, a normal enough phenomenon, but one that has some rather bizarre implications, such as the need to renumber airport runways.
Tampa International Airport on Florida's west coast just finished renaming its three runways, a laborious project that interrupted airport traffic for a month while runways were shut down for repainting.
"Everything had to be changed," airport spokeswoman Brenda Geoghagan. "It was a huge project."
Tampa's busiest runway was called 18R/36L, a designation indicating the runway is -- or was -- lined up 180 degrees from north when approached from the north and 360 degrees from north when approached from the south. (The letters "R" and "L" differentiate between the airport's two parallel runways.)
The new designation, 19R/1L, accounts for a shift in the magnetic north pole, which is moving from far northern Canada toward Russia at a rate of about 40 miles per year.
That means your compass is pointing about 40 miles closer to Russia than it did a year ago. About every five to 10 years, the shift in the planet's magnetic pole builds up to the point where compass alignments and the direction of true north render some runway designations obsolete. The shift impacts some runways more than others, depending on which direction they face and when they were last numbered.
"Earth's magnetic field is changing in time. And as far as we know, it has always been changing in time," geophysicist Jeffrey Love, with the U.S. Geological Survey in Colorado.
The planet's magnetic field is generated inside the Earth's core, which is made of liquid iron. It's hot and in response to the heat, the fluid moves. That creates electric fields, which are amplified on a planet-wide scale.
The motion in the core is complicated and impacted by Earth rotation.
"The magnetic field tends to align itself with the axis of rotation, but it's not perfect," said Love. "It tends to wander around." Every 100,000 years or so, the field flips, meaning that compasses would point south, rather than north. It's been about 780,000 years since the last reversal -- before Homo sapiens existed. Geologic history shows the shifts are random and highly variable. Scientists can't predict when one will occur, or even if the planet is in the middle of one.
"It's like a bull run in market. You won't know it's happening until it's half over," Love said.
During the time it takes you to read this article, something will happen high overhead that until recently many scientists didn't believe in. A magnetic portal will open, linking Earth to the sun 150 million km away. Tons of high-energy particles may flow through the opening before it closes again, around the time you reach the end of the page.
"It's called a flux transfer event or 'FTE,'" says space physicist David Sibeck of the Goddard Space Flight Center. "Ten years ago I was pretty sure they didn't exist, but now the evidence is incontrovertible."
Indeed, today Sibeck is telling an international assembly of space physicists at the 2008 Plasma Workshop in Huntsville, Alabama, that FTEs are not just common, but possibly twice as common as anyone had ever imagined.
An artist's concept of Earth's magnetic field connecting to the sun's--a.k.a. a "flux transfer event"--with a spacecraft on hand to measure particles and fields. (image below)
Researchers have long known that the Earth and sun must be connected. Earth's magnetosphere (the magnetic bubble that surrounds our planet) is filled with particles from the sun that arrive via the solar wind and penetrate the planet's magnetic defenses. They enter by following magnetic field lines that can be traced from terra firma all the way back to the sun's atmosphere.
"We used to think the connection was permanent and that solar wind could trickle into the near-Earth environment anytime the wind was active," says Sibeck. "We were wrong. The connections are not steady at all. They are often brief, bursty and very dynamic."
There are manyquestionswithoutanswers:Whyformthese portalsevery 8minutes?Howto twistandmagnetic fieldstowrapinside thesecylinders?Wethinkverystronglyaboutthesethings.Meanwhile, away fromyourhead, a newportalopens, connecting theplanetearth. www.carareauniversului.blogspot.com/www.nasa.com
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